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Hubbard was sent to submarine chaser training, and in 1943 was posted to Portland, Oregon, to take command of a submarine chaser, USS ''PC-815''. Shortly after the vessel's shakedown cruise, Hubbard unwittingly sailed ''PC-815'' into Mexican territorial waters and conducted gunnery practice off the Coronado Islands, in the belief that they were uninhabited and belonged to the United States. The Mexican government complained and Hubbard was relieved of command. | Hubbard was sent to submarine chaser training, and in 1943 was posted to Portland, Oregon, to take command of a submarine chaser, USS ''PC-815''. Shortly after the vessel's shakedown cruise, Hubbard unwittingly sailed ''PC-815'' into Mexican territorial waters and conducted gunnery practice off the Coronado Islands, in the belief that they were uninhabited and belonged to the United States. The Mexican government complained and Hubbard was relieved of command. | ||
Hubbard attended school in Princeton until January 1945, when he was assigned to Monterey, California. In April, he again reported sick and was admitted to Oak Knoll Naval Hospital, Oakland. His complaints included "headaches, rheumatism, conjunctivitis, pains in his side, stomach aches, pains in his shoulder, arthritis, hemorrhoids." He was discharged from the hospital on December 4, 1945, and transferred to inactive duty on February 17, 1946. Hubbard resigned his commission after the publication of ''Dianetics'', with effect from October 30, 1950. | Hubbard attended school in Princeton until January 1945, when he was assigned to Monterey, California. In April, he again reported sick and was admitted to Oak Knoll Naval Hospital, Oakland. His complaints included, "headaches, rheumatism, conjunctivitis, pains in his side, stomach aches, pains in his shoulder, arthritis, hemorrhoids." He was discharged from the hospital on December 4, 1945, and transferred to inactive duty on February 17, 1946. Hubbard resigned his commission after the publication of ''Dianetics'', with effect from October 30, 1950. | ||
==Involvement with the occult== | ==Involvement with the occult== | ||
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In August 1945, Hubbard moved into the Pasadena mansion of [[Jack Parsons|John "Jack" Whiteside Parsons]]. A leading rocket propulsion researcher at the California Institute of Technology and a founder of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Parsons led a double life as an avid [[occultist]] and [[Thelema|Thelemite]], follower of the English ceremonial magician [[Aleister Crowley]] and leader of a lodge of Crowley's magical order, [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (OTO). | In August 1945, Hubbard moved into the Pasadena mansion of [[Jack Parsons|John "Jack" Whiteside Parsons]]. A leading rocket propulsion researcher at the California Institute of Technology and a founder of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Parsons led a double life as an avid [[occultist]] and [[Thelema|Thelemite]], follower of the English ceremonial magician [[Aleister Crowley]] and leader of a lodge of Crowley's magical order, [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (OTO). | ||
Hubbard befriended Parsons and soon became sexually involved with Parsons's 21-year-old girlfriend, Sara "Betty" Northrup. Hubbard, whom Parsons referred to in writing as "Frater H," became an enthusiastic collaborator in the Pasadena OTO. The two men visited [[Devil's Gate Dam]] and collaborated on the "Babalon Working", a sex magic ritual intended to summon an incarnation of Babalon, the supreme Thelemite Goddess. It was undertaken over several nights in February and March 1946 in order to summon an "elemental" who would participate in further | ===Babalon Working=== | ||
Hubbard befriended Parsons and soon became sexually involved with Parsons's 21-year-old girlfriend, Sara "Betty" Northrup. Hubbard, whom Parsons referred to in writing as "Frater H," became an enthusiastic collaborator in the Pasadena OTO. The two men visited [[Devil's Gate Dam]] and collaborated on the "Babalon Working", a [[sex magic]] ritual intended to summon an incarnation of Babalon, the supreme [[Thelema|Thelemite]] Goddess. It was undertaken over several nights in February and March 1946 in order to summon an "elemental" who would participate in further sex magic. | |||
The "elemental" arrived a few days later in the form of Marjorie Cameron, who agreed to participate in Parsons's rites. Soon afterwards, Parsons, Hubbard and Sara agreed to set up a business partnership, "Allied Enterprises", in which they invested nearly their entire savings—the vast majority contributed by Parsons. The plan was for Hubbard and Sara to buy yachts in Miami and sail them to the West Coast to sell for a profit. Hubbard had a different idea; he wrote to the U.S. Navy requesting permission to leave the country "to visit Central & South America & China" for the purposes of "collecting writing material"—in other words, undertaking a world cruise. | The "elemental" arrived a few days later in the form of Marjorie Cameron, who agreed to participate in Parsons's rites. Soon afterwards, Parsons, Hubbard and Sara agreed to set up a business partnership, "Allied Enterprises", in which they invested nearly their entire savings—the vast majority contributed by Parsons. The plan was for Hubbard and Sara to buy yachts in Miami and sail them to the West Coast to sell for a profit. Hubbard had a different idea; he wrote to the U.S. Navy requesting permission to leave the country "to visit Central & South America & China" for the purposes of "collecting writing material"—in other words, undertaking a world cruise. | ||
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On August 10, 1946, Hubbard bigamously married Sara, while still married to Polly. It was not until 1947 that his first wife learned that he had remarried. Hubbard agreed to divorce Polly in June that year and the marriage was dissolved shortly afterwards, with Polly given custody of the children. | On August 10, 1946, Hubbard bigamously married Sara, while still married to Polly. It was not until 1947 that his first wife learned that he had remarried. Hubbard agreed to divorce Polly in June that year and the marriage was dissolved shortly afterwards, with Polly given custody of the children. | ||
During this period, Hubbard authored a document which has been called the "Affirmations" (also referred to as the "Admissions"). They consist of a series of statements by and addressed to Hubbard, relating to various physical, sexual, psychological and social issues that he was encountering in his life. The Affirmations appear to have been intended to be used as a form of self-hypnosis with the intention of resolving the author's psychological problems and instilling a positive mental attitude. | ==="Affirmation"s=== | ||
During this period, Hubbard authored a document which has been called the "Affirmations" (also referred to as the "Admissions"). They consist of a series of statements by and addressed to Hubbard, relating to various physical, sexual, psychological and social issues that he was encountering in his life. The Affirmations appear to have been intended to be used as a form of self-hypnosis with the intention of resolving the author's psychological problems and instilling a positive mental attitude. | |||
Among the Affirmations: | Among the Affirmations: | ||
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Hubbard collaborated with Campbell and Winter to refine his techniques, testing them on science fiction fans recruited by Campbell. The basic principle of Dianetics was that the brain recorded every experience and event in a person's life, even when unconscious. Bad or painful experiences were stored as what he called "engrams" in a "reactive mind." These could be triggered later in life, causing emotional and physical problems. By carrying out a process he called "auditing," a person could be regressed through his engrams to re-experiencing past experiences. This enabled engrams to be "cleared." The subject, who would now be in a state of "Clear," would have a perfectly functioning mind with an improved IQ and photographic memory. The "Clear" would be cured of physical ailments ranging from poor eyesight to the common cold, which Hubbard asserted were purely psychosomatic. | Hubbard collaborated with Campbell and Winter to refine his techniques, testing them on science fiction fans recruited by Campbell. The basic principle of Dianetics was that the brain recorded every experience and event in a person's life, even when unconscious. Bad or painful experiences were stored as what he called "engrams" in a "reactive mind." These could be triggered later in life, causing emotional and physical problems. By carrying out a process he called "auditing," a person could be regressed through his engrams to re-experiencing past experiences. This enabled engrams to be "cleared." The subject, who would now be in a state of "Clear," would have a perfectly functioning mind with an improved IQ and photographic memory. The "Clear" would be cured of physical ailments ranging from poor eyesight to the common cold, which Hubbard asserted were purely psychosomatic. | ||
Hubbard described Dianetics as "the hidden source of all psychosomatic ills and human aberration" when he introduced Dianetics to the world in the 1950s. He further claimed that "skills have been developed for their invariable cure." On May 9, Hubbard's book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' was published by Hermitage House. Hubbard abandoned freelance writing in order to promote Dianetics, writing several books about it in the next decade and delivering an estimated 4,000 lectures while founding Dianetics research organizations. | Hubbard described ''Dianetics'' as "the hidden source of all psychosomatic ills and human aberration" when he introduced ''Dianetics'' to the world in the 1950s. He further claimed that "skills have been developed for their invariable cure." On May 9, Hubbard's book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' was published by Hermitage House. Hubbard abandoned freelance writing in order to promote ''Dianetics'', writing several books about it in the next decade and delivering an estimated 4,000 lectures while founding Dianetics research organizations. | ||
Dianetics was an immediate commercial success and sparked what Martin Gardner calls "a nationwide cult of incredible proportions." By August 1950, Hubbard's book had sold 55,000 copies, was selling at the rate of 4,000 a week and was being translated into French, German and Japanese. Five hundred | ''Dianetics'' was an immediate commercial success and sparked what Martin Gardner calls "a nationwide cult of incredible proportions." By August 1950, Hubbard's book had sold 55,000 copies, was selling at the rate of 4,000 a week and was being translated into French, German and Japanese. Five hundred ''Dianetics'' auditing groups had been set up across the United States. | ||
Dianetics was poorly received by the press and the scientific and medical professions. The American Psychological Association criticized Hubbard's claims as "not supported by empirical evidence." ''Scientific American'' said that Hubbard's book contained "more promises and less evidence per page than any publication since the invention of printing." | ''Dianetics'' was poorly received by the press and the scientific and medical professions. The American Psychological Association criticized Hubbard's claims as "not supported by empirical evidence." ''Scientific American'' said that Hubbard's book contained "more promises and less evidence per page than any publication since the invention of printing." | ||
==Collapse of Dianetics Foundation== | ==Collapse of Dianetics Foundation== | ||
Dianetics lost public credibility in August 1950 when a presentation by Hubbard before an audience of 6,000 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles failed disastrously. He introduced a Clear named Sonya Bianca and told the audience that as a result of undergoing | ''Dianetics'' lost public credibility in August 1950 when a presentation by Hubbard before an audience of 6,000 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles failed disastrously. He introduced a Clear named Sonya Bianca and told the audience that as a result of undergoing ''Dianetics'' therapy she now possessed perfect recall. However, Gardner writes, "in the demonstration that followed, she failed to remember a single formula in physics (the subject in which she was majoring) or the color of Hubbard's tie when his back was turned. At this point, a large part of the audience got up and left." | ||
The collapse of Hubbard's marriage to Sara created yet more problems. He had begun an affair with his 20-year-old public relations assistant in late 1950, while Sara started a relationship with Dianetics auditor Miles Hollister. Three weeks later, Hubbard and two Foundation staff seized Sara and his year-old daughter Alexis and forcibly took them to San Bernardino, California, where he attempted unsuccessfully to find a doctor to examine Sara and declare her insane. He let Sara go but took Alexis to Havana, Cuba. Sara filed a divorce suit on April 23, 1951, that accused him of marrying her bigamously and subjecting her to sleep deprivation, beatings, strangulation, kidnapping and exhortations to commit suicide. | The collapse of Hubbard's marriage to Sara created yet more problems. He had begun an affair with his 20-year-old public relations assistant in late 1950, while Sara started a relationship with Dianetics auditor Miles Hollister. Three weeks later, Hubbard and two Foundation staff seized Sara and his year-old daughter Alexis and forcibly took them to San Bernardino, California, where he attempted unsuccessfully to find a doctor to examine Sara and declare her insane. He let Sara go but took Alexis to Havana, Cuba. Sara filed a divorce suit on April 23, 1951, that accused him of marrying her bigamously and subjecting her to sleep deprivation, beatings, strangulation, kidnapping and exhortations to commit suicide. | ||
Dianetics appeared to be on the edge of total collapse. However, it was saved by Don Purcell, a millionaire businessman and Dianeticist who agreed to support a new Foundation in Wichita, Kansas. Their collaboration ended after less than a year when they fell out over the future direction of Dianetics. | ''Dianetics'' appeared to be on the edge of total collapse. However, it was saved by Don Purcell, a millionaire businessman and Dianeticist who agreed to support a new Foundation in Wichita, Kansas. Their collaboration ended after less than a year when they fell out over the future direction of ''Dianetics''. | ||
==Church of Scientology== | ==Church of Scientology== | ||
Hubbard expanded upon the basics of Dianetics to construct a spiritually oriented (though at this stage not religious) doctrine based on the concept that the true self of a person was a thetan—an immortal, omniscient and potentially omnipotent entity. Hubbard taught that thetans, having created the material universe, had forgotten their god-like powers and become trapped in physical bodies. | Hubbard expanded upon the basics of ''Dianetics'' to construct a spiritually oriented (though at this stage not religious) doctrine based on the concept that the true self of a person was a thetan—an immortal, omniscient and potentially omnipotent entity. Hubbard taught that thetans, having created the material universe, had forgotten their god-like powers and become trapped in physical bodies. | ||
Hubbard introduced a device called an E-meter that he presented as having, as Miller puts it, "an almost mystical power to reveal an individual's innermost thoughts." He promulgated [[Church of Scientology|Scientology]] through a series of lectures, bulletins and books. Although this model would eventually be extremely successful, Scientology was a very small-scale movement at first. Hubbard started off with only a few dozen followers, generally dedicated Dianeticists. | Hubbard introduced a device called an E-meter that he presented as having, as Miller puts it, "an almost mystical power to reveal an individual's innermost thoughts." He promulgated [[Church of Scientology|Scientology]] through a series of lectures, bulletins and books. Although this model would eventually be extremely successful, Scientology was a very small-scale movement at first. Hubbard started off with only a few dozen followers, generally dedicated Dianeticists. | ||
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Hubbard's health deteriorated significantly during this period. A chain-smoker, he also suffered from bursitis and excessive weight, and had a prominent growth on his forehead. He suffered serious injuries in a motorcycle accident in 1973 and had a heart attack in 1975 that required him to take anticoagulant drugs for the next year. In September 1978, Hubbard had a pulmonary embolism, falling into a coma, but recovered. | Hubbard's health deteriorated significantly during this period. A chain-smoker, he also suffered from bursitis and excessive weight, and had a prominent growth on his forehead. He suffered serious injuries in a motorcycle accident in 1973 and had a heart attack in 1975 that required him to take anticoagulant drugs for the next year. In September 1978, Hubbard had a pulmonary embolism, falling into a coma, but recovered. | ||
He remained active in managing and developing Scientology, establishing the controversial Rehabilitation Project Force in 1974 | He remained active in managing and developing Scientology, establishing the controversial Rehabilitation Project Force in 1974 and issuing policy and doctrinal bulletins. | ||
For the first few years of the 1980s, Hubbard lived on the move, touring the Pacific Northwest in a recreational vehicle and living for a while in apartments in Newport Beach and Los Angeles. Hubbard used his time in hiding to write his first new works of science fiction for nearly thirty years—''Battlefield Earth'' (1982) and ''Mission Earth'', a ten-volume series published between 1985 and 1987. | For the first few years of the 1980s, Hubbard lived on the move, touring the Pacific Northwest in a recreational vehicle and living for a while in apartments in Newport Beach and Los Angeles. Hubbard used his time in hiding to write his first new works of science fiction for nearly thirty years—''Battlefield Earth'' (1982) and ''Mission Earth'', a ten-volume series published between 1985 and 1987. | ||