Candomblé
Candomblé is an African diaspora religion that developed in Brazil during the 19th century. It arose through a process of syncretism between several of the traditional religions of West and Central Africa, especially those of the Yoruba, Bantu, and Gbe, coupled with influences from Roman Catholicism.
Candomblé arose in 19th-century Brazil, where the imported traditional African religions of enslaved West Africans had to adapt to a slave colony in which Roman Catholicism was the official religion. It is thus one of several religions that emerged in the Americas through the interaction of West African and Roman Catholic traditions, and for this reason is considered a "sister religion" of Cuban Santería and Haitian Vodou.
Name
The term Candomblé itself probably derives from a Bantu word for dances, kandombele, which also developed into the term for a dance style in Argentina and Uruguay, Candombe. Another word sometimes applied to Candomblé is macumba; this generic term can be applied to Afro-Brazilian religions as a whole but is especially associated with sorcery or black magic, and thus some Candomblécistas distance themselves from it.
Candomblé's followers are called povo de santo (people of saint), or Candomblecistas.
Structure
Candomblé is not institutionalised, with no central authority to determine doctrine and orthodoxy, and no central sacred text. It is heterogenous, displaying regional variation in its beliefs and practices. Each lineage or community of practitioners is autonomous, organized around autonomous terreiros (houses), approaching the religion in ways informed by their tradition and the choices of their leader.
A priestess running a terreiro is a mâe de santo (mother of saints); a priest who does so is a pai de santo (father of saints).
Candomblé divides itself into traditions known as nações (nations). The three most prominent are:
- Nagô or Ketu (Queto)
- Jeje (Gege) or Mina-Jeje
- Angola or Congo-Angola
Others include the Ijexá and Caboclo. Each derives influence from a different African language group; Ketu uses Yoruba, Jeje adopts Ewe, and the Angola draws from the Bantu language group. Informed by these ethno-linguistic origins, each Candomblé nation has its own lexicon, chants, deities, sacred objects, and traditional knowledge.
An initiate can transfer from one nation to another, a process referred to as trocar as águas ("to change the waters"). Attitudes between nations can be negative; those groups which emphasise claims to "African purity" have often denigrated other nations they deem more syncretic, with the Angola nation sometimes regarded as the most syncretic. The Nagô nation is the largest, reflecting how Yoruba traditional religion became the dominant West African influence within Afro-Brazilian religions in the 19th century, and even among nations other than the Nagô, Yoruba-derived terminology predominates widely.
History
Although African religions had been present in Brazil since the 16th century, the "organized, structured liturgy and community of practice called Candomblé" only arose later. The earliest terreiros appeared in Bahia in the early 19th century. The first terreiro was the Ilê Axé Iyá Nassô Oká (also known as the Casa Branca or Engenho Velho), founded in Salvador in 1830, and from which the Nagô tradition descends.
Various emancipated Yoruba began trading between Brazil and West Africa, and a significant role in the creation of Candomblé were several African freemen who were affluent and sent their children to be educated in Lagos.
Brazil's republican Constitution of 1891 enshrined freedom of religion. However, Afro-Brazilian religious traditions continued to face legal issues; the Penal Code of 1890 included prohibitions on Spiritism, talismans, and much herbal medicine, impacting Candomblé. The authorities continued to shut down terreiros, claiming they were a threat to public health. The late 19th century saw the first terreiros open in Rio de Janeiro, a city then seeing a rapid expansion in its population. The period also saw various upper-class white Brazilians seeking out Candomblé.
Modern era
Candomblé became increasingly public in the 1930s, partly because Brazilians were increasingly encouraged to perceive themselves as part of a multi-racial, mixed society in the midst of President Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo project. Vargas' Law Decree 1202 recognized the legitimacy of terreiros, while the Penal Code of 1940 offered them additional protections.
The religion spread during the 20th century. Growing Afro-Brazilian migration to São Paulo brought the rapid rise of Candomblé there; from virtually no terreiros until the 1960s, it had over 4000 by the century's end. Candomblé federations emerged in most Brazilian states, representing practitioners in their dealings with the government and society more broadly.
By the early 21st century, tourist literature increasingly portrayed Candomblé as an intrinsic part of Brazilian culture; Varig Airlines used the tagline "Fly with Axé." Conversely, the 2000s saw growing Evangelical Protestant opposition, including physical attacks on practitioners and terreiros, to which Candomblecistas responded with protest marches.
Orixás
Candomblé revolves around spirits termed orixás (orishas) or santos ("saints"). In the Angola tradition they are sometimes termed inkice, and in the Jeje tradition vodun. The males are termed aborôs, the females iabás. Believed to mediate between humanity and Olorun, the orixás have been varyingly conceived as ancestral figures, or embodiments of forces of nature. Their names may differ according to nation; in Nagô they commonly possess Yoruba names, but in the Jeje nation they are instead given Fon names.
The orixás are deemed morally ambiguous, each with their own virtues and flaws, and are sometimes in conflict with each other. Each orixá is associated with specific colors, foods, animals, and minerals, favoring certain offerings. Each orixá is associated with a particular day of the week; the priesthood also states that each year is governed by a specific orixá who will influence the events taking place within it. Their personalities are informed by a key conceptual opposition in Candomblé, that of the cool versus the hot.
Each orixá equates with a Roman Catholic saint. In Candomblé altars, the orixás are often represented with images and statues of Roman Catholic saints.
Relationship with orixás
In Candomblé, relationships are thought rooted in reciprocal obligations, and Candomblecistas see the relationship between the orixás and humanity as being one of interdependence. Practitioners seek to build harmonious relationships with the orixás, thus securing their protection.
Candomblé teaches that everyone links to a particular orixá, one that influences that individual's personality. This is their dono da cabeça: the owner or master of the person's head. The gender of this tutelary orixá is not necessarily the same as their human's.
The identity of a person's orixá can be ascertained through divination, and failing to know one's orixá is sometimes interpreted as the cause of mental illness. Depending on the orixá in question, an initiate may choose to avoid or to engage in certain activities, such as avoiding specific foods or wearing specific colours.
Some practitioners also believe in further orixá linked to an individual; a second is known as the juntó, while a third is called the adjuntó, the tojuntó, or the dijuntó. Some believe that a person can also have a fourth orixá, inherited from a deceased relative.
List of orixás
Between Candomble, Umbanda, and other Afro-Brazilian religions, there are more than 400 entities considered orixás. However, only between 16 and 30 of these are widely revered. Throughout Brazil, the 16 most common orixás are:
| Orixá | Saint | Gender | Role | Colors | Greeting |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Exú | Saint Anthony | Male | Guardian of pathways. Removes barriers. | Black and red | "Laroyê Exu" |
| Oxalá | Jesus Christ | Male | Father of the gods. Represents the sun, creation and life. | White | "Êpa Babá" |
| Ogum | Saint George | Male | God of war. | Blue | "Ogunhê Ogum" |
| Oxóssi | Saint Sebastian | Male | Forests and hunting. Abundance of food. | Green and blue | "Okê arô Oxóssi" |
| Oxum | Our Lady of Aparecida | Female | Waterfalls, rivers, love, beauty and precious metals. Fertility, feminine strength and the conquest of wealth. | Gold | "Ora iê iê ô Oxum" |
| Oxumaré | Saint Bartholomew | Male | Rainbow serpent representing the union of heaven and earth. | Green and yellow | "Aoboboí" |
| Xango | Saint Peter or Saint Jerome | Male | King of fire, thunder, and justice. | Red | "Kaô Kabecilê" |
| Iansã | Saint Barbara | Female | Storms, wind, and lightning. Responsible for transporting souls of the dead. | Red | "Eparrei Oyá" |
| Iemanjá | Our Lady of Conception | Female | Ruler of the sea. The Great Mother. | Blue | "Odoyá Iemanjá" |
| Nanã | Saint Anne | Female | Secrets of life and death. Ancient wisdom. | Purple | "Salubá" |
| Omolú (Obaluaê) | Saint Lazarus | Male | Curing illness and bringing healing. | Straw and black | "Atotô" |
| Logunedé | Saint Expeditus | Male (partially female) | Hunter, fisherman, and fighter. Associated with great beauty. | Blue and yellow | "Loci loci Logun" |
| Obá | Joan of Arc | Female | Ruler of turbulent waters. Fierce warrior and protector of justice. | Red and white | "Obá siré" |
| Ossain | Saint Benedict | Male | Bring healing and rules over sacred plants. | Green and white | "Ewé ó, ewé ó" |
| Ewá | Saint Lucy | Female | Beauty, sensuality, and purity. Influences clairvoyance and rules over the horizon. | Pink | "Ri Ro Ewá" |
| Ibejis | Saints Cosmas and Damian | Male | Protectors of children. Embody joy and innocence. | Green, blue, and pink | "Bejiróó! Oni beijada!" |
Exus and caboclos
Another spirit group in the Candomblé worldview are the exus, sometimes termed exuas when female, or exu-mirims when children. Deemed closer to humanity than the orixás and thus more accessible, the exus are often regarded as the "slaves" of the orixás. In common parlance they are often described as "devils," although in Candomblé are not regarded as a force for absolute evil but rather thought capable of both good and bad acts. Practitioners believe that the exus can "open" or "close" the "roads" of fate in one's life, bringing about both help and harm. Candomblé teaches that the exus can be induced to do a practitioner's bidding, although need to be carefully controlled. The exus are recorded as having been part of Candomblé since at least the 1930s and probably arose earlier.
Also present in Candomblé are the caboclos, their name probably stemming from the Tupi language term kari'boka ("deriving from the white"). These spirits are typically those of indigenous Americans or of boiadeiros ("cowboys" or "backwoodsmen"), although in rarer cases caboclos are portrayed as being from the sea or from foreign countries. Almost exclusively male, the caboclos are believed to dwell in a forest land called Aruanda, and are characterised as smoking cigars and favoring beer.
Beliefs
Candomblé adopts its cosmology largely from Yoruba traditional religion. The material world of humanity is called aiê (or aiye); the realm of the spirits is termed orun, and is divided into nine levels.
Candomblé teaches the existence of a supreme divinity called Olorun or Olodumare. This entity is regarded as the creator of everything but is thought distant and unapproachable, and thus not specifically worshipped in Candomblé.
Spirits of the dead are called eguns. The recently deceased are termed aparacá; after they have been "educated" by receiving sacrifices they become babá. After death, the egun can enter orun, although the level they reach depends on the spiritual growth they attained in life. Sometimes, eguns will seek to help the living but inadvertently harm them; given this potential, Candomblé stresses precautions in dealing with these entities.
Axe
Candomblé teaches the existence of a force called ashe or axé, "the spiritual force of the universe." Practitioners believe axé can move, but can also concentrate in specific objects, such as leaves, roots, and specific body parts. Blood in particular is deemed to contain axé in its most concentrated form. Humans can accumulate axé, but also either lose or transfer it.
Morality
Candomblé generally has no fixed ethical precepts, although its teachings influence the lives of Candomblecistas. Rather than stressing a dichotomy between good and evil, emphasis is placed on achieving equilibrium between competing forces. Problems that arise in a person's life are often interpreted as resulting from a disharmony in an individual's relationship with their tutelary orixá; harmony is ensured by following the orixá's euó (taboos) regarding issues like food, drink, and colors.
Gender roles
Male/female polarity is a recurring theme throughout Candomblé. Many roles within the religion are gendered. For instance, animal sacrifice and the shaving of an initiate's head are usually reserved for male practitioners, while women are typically responsible for domestic duties in maintaining the ritual space.
Candomblé is more accepting of sexual and gender non-conformity than mainstream Brazilian society. Many gay men are followers and a pervasive stereotype associates Candomblé with gay men.
Practices
Candomblé is a practice-oriented religion; ritual correctness is considered more important than belief. Rituals often focus on pragmatic issues regarding prosperity, health, love, and fecundity. Those engaging in Candomblé include various initiates of varying degrees and non-initiates who may attend events and approach initiates seeking help with various problems.
Music
Music and dance are fundamental elements of Candomblé. The drumming will often take place all night. These drums are understood as living and need to be "fed." The head drummer is the alabê. Many terreiros maintain that women should not be involved in this ritual drumming, although others reject this tradition. In some rituals, practitioners will drink a concoction containing jurema, a mildly hallucinogenic plant, sometimes mixed with the blood of sacrificed animals.
Possession
Although it is usually a dancer who becomes possessed, sometimes spectators will too. A possessed person is called a cavalo (horse); being possessed by the orixá is deemed a privilege. After an individual becomes possessed, they may be led into an anteroom to be dressed in clothes associated with the possessing orixá; this usually includes brightly colored dresses, regardless of the gender of those involved.
Once the possessing spirit departs, it is expected that the possessed person will have no memory of it.
Offerings
Offerings to spirits are known as ebós, and can consist of food, drink, fowl, and money; when animal sacrifice is not involved, a food offering is termed a comida seca. These offerings are believed to generate axé which then gives an orixá the power to aid their worshippers. When a ceremony starts, practitioners typically provide a padé, or propitiatory offering, to the orixá Exu.
Candomblé entails animal sacrifice, which is called matanças. Species typically used are chickens, guinea fowl, white doves, and goats. The animal will often have its neck cut with a knife, of in the case of birds, its head severed. After the animal is killed, its blood is spilled onto the altar; its organs are often removed and placed around the "seat" of the orixá. Following the sacrifice, is it common for divination to be performed to determine if the sacrifice has been accepted.
Divination
Initiates engage in divination, often as a key source of income. The most common form of divination employed is the dilogun or jogo dos buzios ("shell game"), which is performed by both men and women. This entails throwing cowrie shells and drawing interpretation from their landing. 16 shells are commonly thrown, with a further four to confirm the answer provided by the first throwing. Each configuration of shells is associated with certain odu, or mythological stories, then interpreted as having pertinence for the client's situation.
Festivals
Although details of the liturgical calendar vary among terreiros, Candomblé features a yearly cycle of festivals or feasts to the orixás. These are sometimes private and sometimes open to the public. These are typically held on the Roman Catholic saint's day associated with the saint linked to a particular orixá. The main festival season begins in September, with the feast of Oxala, and continues through to February, when the feast of Iemanjá takes place.
Initiation
Candomblé is an initiatory religion, one which is organized around a structured hierarchy based on initiatory status. Knowledge about Candomblé's beliefs and practices is referred to as the fundamentos (foundations"), and is guarded by practitioners.
Initiation is known as fazer cabeça ("to make the head") or fazer o santo ("making the saint"). This is usually very expensive. At their initiation, they are given a new name, the nome de santo (saint's name), which usually indicates the identity of their tutelary orixá. Many feel that an orixá has demanded their initiation, with it being their obrigação ("duty").
The length of the initiatory process varies between Candomblé houses but usually lasts from a few weeks to a few months.
Initiation process
The initiate is first brought to the terreiro, where they are left for a period of relaxation, the descanso, so that they might become "cool." They are dressed in white clothing, and they will be given a string of beads associated with their tutelary orixá. The necklace is colored according to the latter; white for Oxalá, dark blue for Ogum, or red and white for Xangô, for instance.
New initiates are secluded in a room in the terreiro called the roncô, where they sleep on a straw mat, eat only bland food, and are often forbidden to speak. During this period they are taught about their tutelary orixá, such as its likes and dislikes and its associated drum rhythms and dances. The time spent in isolation varies, although three weeks is typical. They will be bathed in water mixed with herbs, before being taken to the altar room, where drumming and singing takes place. Animals are sacrificed, including a four-legged animal, and blood may be touched on the initiate's body.
The initiate's head is then shaved and two cuts made into the apex of it with a razor, allowing the orixá entry into it; blood and herbs may be mixed into the wounds. A cone of wax, the adoxu, may be placed on the cut to stem the bleeding; the head will then be wrapped in cloth. Depending on the terreiro, cuts may also be made on the initiate's tongue, back, upper arms, thighs, buttocks, and the soles of their feet. With the incisions made, the orixá is "seated" within the individual's head during the assentar o santo ritual.
Post-initiation
The new initiate may be presented to the rest of the community through the saida ceremony. Along with their white clothes, their body will often be covered in white spots. During this, they may be expected to give the name of the marca of their tutelary orixá, which they are supposed to have discovered via a dream.
In the panán, the initiate is symbolically re-taught mundane tasks, a ritual sometimes followed by an auction in which the initiate is symbolically sold to their spouse or a member of their family, a reference to the era of slavery. On the following Friday, they attend mass in a Roman Catholic church, and finally, a senior terreiro member will lead them back to their home. Becoming an initiate implies a relationship of mutual responsibility between the individual and the orixás, with the tutelary orixá now forever inhabiting that individual's body. Over the course of the following year, the initiate may conduct further "obligations" to build their relationship with the orixá.
Candomblé includes additional, graded initiations, expected to take place one year, three years, and seven years after the original initiatory ceremony. Over the course of this they are expected to learn to receive all of their tutelary orixá. In practice, many adherents cannot afford these ceremonies at the specified time and they instead take place years after.
Demographics
One census report indicated that around 1.3 percent of Brazil's population identified as Candomblé followers. This likely reflects only the number of initiates, with a larger body of non-initiates sometimes attending ceremonies or consulting initiates for healing and other services.
In Brazil, Candomblé is a largely urban phenomenon, generally found among the poor, with most followers being black women. Membership is more diverse in southern Brazil, where there are large numbers of white and middle-class followers.
Many Candomblecistas have a family link to the tradition, with their parents or other relatives being initiates. Others convert to the movement without such connections, sometimes having already explored Pentecostalism, Spiritism, or Umbanda; some Umbandistas feel that they can go "deeper" by moving towards Candomblé. Many describe having been ill or plagued with misfortune prior to being initiated into Candomblé, having determined through divination that their ailments would cease if they did so.
Perception
Practitioners of Candomblé have often encountered intolerance and religious discrimination: their religion is given the negative label macumba, terreiro leaders are often stereotyped as greedy and conniving, and terreiros have been attacked. More extreme hostile views of Candomblé have regarded it as devil worship, while milder critical views see it as superstition that attracts the simple-minded and desperate.
Brazil's Roman Catholics have mixed opinions of Candomblé and the attendance of its practitioners at mass, while Evangelical and Pentecostal groups more uniformly target Candomblecistas as part of their "spiritual war" against Satan.